The construction of the Giza pyramids chronicled by human copper contamination

Abstract Although the construction of the Giza necropolis necessitated the creation of an extensive array of metal tools, the significance of these early instances of metallurgy, and the contamination they left, has been overlooked in favor of understanding pyramid building techniques. We geochemically analyzed a sediment core from the Khufu harbor, on the Nile floodplain at Giza, Egypt, to track the construction of the necropolis, with a particular focus on copper contamination deriving from metallurgical activities. We found that significant local contamination occurred during the regnal years of Kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, consistent with metalworking during the preparation and construction of the edifices. While the pyramid complex led to the creation of an outstanding cultural legacy for humanity, it also marked the onset of significant human-caused metal contamination at Giza.