Embedding of Markov matrices for d 4

The embedding problem of Markov matrices in Markov semigroups is a classic problem that regained a lot of impetus and activities through recent needs in phylogeny and population genetics. Here, we give an account for dimensions d 4 d ⩽ 4 , including a complete and simplified treatment of the case $$d=3$$ d = 3 , and derive the results in a systematic fashion, with an eye on the potential applications. Further, we reconsider the setup of the corresponding problem for time-inhomogeneous Markov chains, which is needed for real-world applications because transition rates need not be constant over time. Additional cases of this more general embedding occur for any d 3 d ⩾ 3 . We review the known case of $$d=3$$ d = 3 and describe the setting for future work on $$d=4$$ d = 4 .