Can Jupiter’s Atmospheric Metallicity Be Different from the Deep Interior?

Abstract Updated formation and structure models of Jupiter predict a metal-poor envelope. This is at odds with the two to three times solar metallicity measured by the Galileo probe. Additionally, Juno data imply that water and ammonia are enriched. Here, we explore whether Jupiter could have a deep radiative layer separating the atmosphere from the deeper interior. The radiative layer could be caused by a hydrogen-transparency window or depletion of alkali metals. We show that heavy-element accretion during Jupiter’s evolution could lead to the desired atmospheric enrichment and that this configuration would be stable over billions of years. The origin of the heavy elements could be cumulative small impacts or one large impact. The preferred scenario requires a deep radiative zone, due to a local reduction of the opacity at ∼2000 K by ∼90%, which is supported by Juno data, and vertical mixing through the boundary with an efficiency similar to that of molecular diffusion ( D ≲ 10 −2 cm 2 s −1 ). Therefore, most of Jupiter’s molecular envelope could have solar composition while its uppermost atmosphere is enriched with heavier elements. The enrichment likely originates from the accretion of solid objects. This possibility resolves the long-standing mismatch between Jupiter’s interior models and atmospheric composition measurements. Furthermore, our results imply that the measured atmospheric composition of exoplanets does not necessarily reflect their bulk compositions. We also investigate whether the enrichment could be due to the erosion of a dilute core and show that this is highly unlikely. The core-erosion scenario is inconsistent with evolution calculations, the deep radiative layer, and published interior models.