The minimum requirements for post-cellular evolution from prokaryotes towards multicellular eukaryotes are outlined. The main steps are: formation of a true nucleus harboring linear chromosomes with centromeres and telomeres, establishing of mitosis and of sex via meiosis and fertilization, endosymbiotic gain of mitochondria and plastids, and epigenetic differentiation of non-separated cells into tissues of multicellular organisms. Erroneous DNA double-strand break repair and cell fusion are postulated as main drivers of eukaryotic evolution. Advantages versus disadvantages of eukaryotes compared to prokaryotes are discussed.
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Ingo Schubert (2024) studied this question.
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