Early-phase neuroplasticity induced by offline transcranial ultrasound stimulation in primates

The use of 'offline' transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) protocols is of particular interest in the rapidly growing field of low-intensity TUS. Offline TUS can modulate neural activity up to several hours after stimulation, suggesting the induction of early-phase neuroplasticity. Studies in both humans and nonhuman primates have shown spatially specific changes in both the neuromodulation target and in a distributed network of regions associated with it. These changes suggest that excitatory or inhibitory effects are a result of a complex interaction between the protocol used and the underlying brain region and state. Understanding how early-phase neuroplasticity is induced by offline TUS could open avenues for influencing late-phase neuroplasticity and therapeutic applications in a wide range of brain disorders.