Exploring the relationship between student-content interaction, student-student interaction, self-efficacy, and learning achievements in a student-centered classroom

<ns3:p>Background With the growing mismatch between traditional academic training and the demands of the modern workforce, student-centered education has emerged as a key reform in higher education. This study examines the relationships among student-content interaction, student-student interaction, self-efficacy, and learning achievement in student-centered classrooms at Chinese application-oriented universities. Methods Data were collected from 524 undergraduate students via online questionnaires and analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Results The results indicate that both student-content and student-student interactions significantly enhance learning achievement, with self-efficacy playing a critical mediating role. Higher levels of self-efficacy were also directly associated with improved academic achievement, underscoring its central importance in student success. Conclusions These findings highlight the value of fostering interactive learning environments and promoting the development of self-efficacy to improve educational outcomes. Educators are encouraged to implement instructional strategies that facilitate meaningful engagement, thereby supporting both the cognitive and motivational dimensions of learning. This study provides empirical evidence to inform the design of effective student-centered teaching practices in higher education.</ns3:p>