Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as a promising platform for personalized treatment of colorectal cancer: current applications and future challenges

Colorectal cancer is a heterogeneous and molecularly complex cancer that often leads to poor prognosis. The standard treatment includes surgical resection and adjuvant therapies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. However, owing to the individual heterogeneity of patients, the effectiveness of these treatments is difficult to achieve consistently and efficiently. Patient-derived organoids (PDOs), by mimicking key genes, physical, and mechanical cues from the tumor microenvironment, simulates tumor heterogeneity, tissue structure, and molecular characteristics, as well as the cellular interactions within the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, it provides a more physiological and relevant environment for anticancer drug screening and predicting patient responses to personalized approaches, bridging the gap between simplified 2D models and animal models. Here, we review the roles of PDOs in customizing CRC treatment, discussing its roles in predicting drug sensitivity, drug screening, studying drug resistance mechanisms, simulating cell-to-cell interactions, and exploring immunotherapy targets to develop personalized therapies.