The Interplay of Tourism, Religion, and Socioeconomic Differentiation in Multi-Religious Ethnic Communities

Engaging with the nuanced intersection of cultural tourism and religious identity, this study probes the socioeconomic inequalities shaped by ethnic tourism within Pakistan’s Kalash community, where religious distinctions between Kafir Kalash and Muslim Kalash subgroups underlie unequal access to tourism-derived benefits. While tourism is often promoted as a tool for development, its role in reinforcing intra-community disparities in multi-religious settings remains understudied. Combining Bourdieu’s capital theory with household surveys from both tourism-active and non-tourism villages, we use stratified expenditure models to assess economic outcomes. Results show that Kafir Kalash households convert cultural capital into tourism income, while forest-reliant Muslim Kalash households remain economically marginalized. These patterns highlight tourism’s role in deepening internal stratification and seasonal environmental pressure. We recommend inclusive tourism policies, targeted training, and forest-conservation income pathways to address these disparities. The study contributes new insights into the intersection of cultural tourism, religious identity, and inequality in indigenous communities.