Stability and Tribological Performance of Water-Emulsified Engine Oils for Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engines

Hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines (H2ICEs) generate water vapour that can condense in the sump and form water-in-oil emulsions, altering lubricant performance. This study measures the viscosity–temperature behaviour, copper corrosivity, and boundary tribology of three commercial oils—synthetic (5W-40 ), semi-synthetic (10W-40), and mineral (15W-40)—emulsified with 5–40 wt% water and tested in both freshly emulsified and aged (3 months; clarified oil layer) states. In fresh emulsions, viscosity rose with water fraction. At 25 ∘C and 40 wt%, the increase was 44.4% (5W-40), 78.7% (10W-40), and 81.2% (15W-40) versus the neat oils. Ageing drove viscosities toward the baseline, with the strongest effect observed for 15W-40, indicating destabilisation. The Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann (VFT) model was fitted to all datasets (RMSE <5%). A VFT-based screening map uses two ratios at the friction test temperature: Rη=η/ηneat (relative film-forming tendency) and Rs=S/Sneat with S=B/(T−T0)2 (thermal-thinning sensitivity). A Preferred regime, Rη≥1.25 and Rs≤0.95, is correlated with lower friction, smaller wear scars, and copper rating 1a, with most aged conditions migrated out of this regime. Under boundary conditions, 5–10 wt% water generally reduced friction, whereas higher fractions and ageing increased friction and wear. Synthetic oil (5W-40) showed the most robust response.