Occupants’ satisfaction with STPV window design in private and open spaces by VR images

Semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) systems have gained increasing attention for their ability to generate electricity while reducing energy consumption compared to conventional windows, addressing climate and energy challenges. However, STPV systems inherently reduce window transparency, which may compromise occupant visual comfort and satisfaction. This study experimentally investigates occupant satisfaction with crystalline silicon (c-Si) STPV windows at different cell coverage ratios (CCR) in private offices and open spaces using virtual reality (VR) technology validated by the Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ). Forty-five participants evaluated six CCR configurations (0%-50%) across two spatial types. Results show VR environments achieved satisfactory presence levels (IPQ: 70.37% private, 70.06% open), validating the methodology. Occupant satisfaction decreased with increasing CCR in both spaces, from 5.11 to 3.00 (private) and 5.89 to 3.22 (open). Open spaces showed significantly higher satisfaction than private offices for 10%-40% CCR, with convergence at 50% CCR. These findings provide design guidance for optimizing STPV integration while maintaining occupant comfort.