Bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation on linen fabrics: Exploring the influence of textile factors

Natural fibres are increasingly valued for their sustainability, comfort, and potential health benefits. Linen is often assumed to possess inherent antibacterial properties, yet evidence remains inconsistent. This study systematically evaluated the inherent antibacterial activity of linen-based fabrics and the influence of weave structure on bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Four woven fabrics in plain, satin, cross-twill, and shaded weave were characterized for thickness, mass per unit area, air permeability, surface openness and roughness, porosity, apparent capillary radius, and wettability. Antibacterial performance was assessed through adhesion and biofilm formation assays using Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, supported by inverted phase-contrast fluorescence, and scanning electron microscopy. Untreated fabrics, irrespective of weave, supported bacterial adhesion and biofilm development, refuting claims of inherent antibacterial activity. Weave structure influenced initial bacterial adhesion but not subsequent proliferation; fabrics in plain and cross-twill weave, with smaller pores, exhibited slightly lower initial adhesion than fabrics in satin and shaded weaves, though differences were not statistically significant. Surface roughness varied among weaves but did not correlate with bacterial retention. These findings highlight that physicochemical interactions between bacterial cells and linen surface predominantly determine bacterial adhesion. For applications requiring bacterial control, additional antimicrobial treatments are necessary, with weave selection modulating bacterial adhesion.