Between support and substitution: the impact of artificial intelligence use on anxiety and learning performance among Spanish majors in China

Introduction Generative AI is increasingly embedded in foreign-language learning, yet its effects may depend on how students use it. We examined how distinct AI usage behaviors relate to learning/career anxiety and learning performance among Spanish majors in China. Methods We surveyed 733 Spanish majors from 59 universities (July–August 2025). Instruments captured AI behaviors, learning anxiety, career anxiety, and learning performance. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses identified usage dimensions; Pearson correlations and multiple regressions (controlling for gender, age, grade, and program type) tested associations. Mediation/suppression was examined via Bootstrap procedures. Results A three-factor structure emerged: (1) substitutive use (AI replaces learners' cognitive work), (2) after-class auxiliary use, and (3) in-class auxiliary use. Substitutive use was positively associated with learning anxiety (β = 0.331) and career anxiety (β = 0.189) and negatively predicted learning performance (β = −0.178). After-class auxiliary use positively predicted performance (β = 0.271) but slightly increased anxiety; both learning and career anxiety exerted small suppressor effects on this positive pathway. In-class auxiliary use showed no significant effects on anxiety or performance. Both learning anxiety (β = −0.221) and career anxiety (β = −0.092) negatively predicted performance. Discussion The educational impact of AI hinges on usage patterns and scenarios. Substitutive behaviors elevate anxiety and undermine performance, whereas well-scaffolded after-class auxiliary use benefits performance despite minor anxiety-related suppression. Guiding students to curb substitutive use and optimize auxiliary strategies—especially outside class—may improve outcomes.