Scales in the natural language: Some observations on semantics and typology

In this article, we discuss scalar phenomena across domains, taking a scale to be a set of entities linearly ordered by some relation. We address scalar semantics of various linguistic expressions (gradable adjectives, comparatives, approximative constructions, verbal modifiers, modals, focus markers, among others). The study is based on the data from Indo-European, Uralic, Altaiic, Dogon, Gur languages, mostly collected during fieldwork conducted by the authors. The key research questions include the parameters of semantic variation across scalar expressions and the restrictions on this variation. We identify the characteristics of scalar structures used to analyze various linguistic items and describe basic operations on these structures. We argue that there are robust cross-linguistic regularities in how natural languages utilize scalar structures depending on the ontological type of ordered entities. In particular, times form a natural class with degrees in being arranged in a linear order. Individuals and events, in contrast, show a strong preference for a partial order. Finally, propositions are organized into scalar structures that can make use of both partial and linear order.