Barriers to care and internalized gender stigma among women in Zambia: a DHS-based analysis of psychosocial vulnerability

Economic disadvantage and rural location are major drivers of structural barriers to care, whereas higher education and wealth protect against internalized gender stigma. These findings suggest that policy solutions must pair economic empowerment strategies with gender‑transformative strategies. In practical terms, expanding health infrastructure and reducing out‑of‑pocket costs in rural areas should be coupled with initiatives that promote women's education and challenge norms that legitimize violence.