The representational nature of action–effect relations: A memory process dissociation approach

Abstract Learning how actions change the environment is crucial for goal-directed actions and skill acquisition. Here, we applied a process dissociation approach to investigate the contribution of explicit and implicit memory to the learning of action–effect relations across four experiments. Participants produced object images by pressing one of two keys, with each action–effect episode experienced three times. Learning was either incidental (Experiments 1-2) or intentional (Experiments 2-4) and occurred under full (Experiments 1-4) or divided (Experiments 3-4) attention. In a test phase, participants were re-presented the effect images and asked to either reproduce or alternate the action that had produced them. Results obtained through cognitive modeling revealed that action–effect relations are primarily represented in explicit memory, with minimal contributions of implicit memory. Intentional learning enhanced memory compared to incidental learning, while divided attention during encoding reduced it, with these factors mainly affecting explicit memory. These findings elucidate the mechanisms underlying skill acquisition and provide insights into the representational nature of action–effect relations.