Two-Dimensional Carbon-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Pesticide Detection: Recent Advances and Environmental Monitoring Applications

Pesticides have been widely applied in agricultural practices over the past decades to protect crops from pests and other harmful organisms. However, their extensive use results in the contamination of soil, water, and agricultural products, posing significant risks to human and environmental health. Exposure to pesticides can lead to skin irritation, respiratory disorders, and various chronic health problems. Moreover, pesticides frequently enter surface water bodies such as rivers and lakes through agricultural runoff and leaching processes. Therefore, developing effective analytical methods for the rapid and sensitive detection of pesticides in food and water is of great importance. Electrochemical sensing techniques have shown remarkable progress in pesticide analysis due to their high sensitivity, simplicity, and potential for on-site monitoring. Two-dimensional (2D) carbon nanomaterials have emerged as efficient electrocatalysts for the precise and selective detection of pesticides, owing to their large surface area, excellent electrical conductivity, and unique structural features. In this review, we summarize recent advancements in the electrochemical detection of pesticides using 2D carbon-based materials. Comprehensive information on electrode fabrication, sensing mechanisms, analytical performance—including sensing range and limit of detection—and the versatility of 2D carbon composites for pesticide detection is provided. Challenges and future perspectives in developing highly sensitive and selective electrochemical sensing platforms are also discussed, highlighting their potential for simultaneous pesticide monitoring in food and environmental samples. Carbon-based electrochemical sensors have been the subject of many investigations, but their practical application in actual environmental and food samples is still restricted because of matrix effects, operational instability, and repeatability issues. In order to close the gap between laboratory research and real-world applications, this review critically examines sensor performance in real-sample conditions and offers innovative approaches for in situ pesticide monitoring.