Mechanistic Insights into Water Hardness Effects on AFFF Foam Behavior: The Dominant Role of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺

Jiaqing Zhang; Yi Guo; Dongsheng Wang; Peng Gao; Depeng Kong

doi:10.1039/d5sm01131k

January 1, 2026Soft Matter

Mechanistic Insights into Water Hardness Effects on AFFF Foam Behavior: The Dominant Role of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺

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Key Points

This research aims to understand how water hardness influences the behavior of AFFF extinguishing agents, focusing on calcium and magnesium ions.
Prepared aqueous film-forming foams using water with varying calcium and magnesium concentrations.
Conducted experiments to analyze foam behavior under different water hardness conditions.
Assessed the extinguishing efficiency of the foams with respect to water hardness.
Foams created with hard water (high Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺) exhibited different stability compared to those made with soft water.
The presence of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ significantly affected the foam's extinguishing performance.
Optimal water hardness levels were identified for effective AFFF performance.

Implication

Investigation reveals water hardness impacts AFFF foam behavior, indicating Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ play critical roles.

Abstract

To investigate the effects of water hardness on aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) extinguishing agents, this study prepared AFFFs using water with varying concentrations and mixing ratios of Ca2+ and Mg2+....

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Cite This Study

Zhang et al. (2026) studied this question.

synapsesocial.com/papers/697460e9bb9d90c67120abea https://doi.org/10.1039/d5sm01131k

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Mechanistic Insights into Water Hardness Effects on AFFF Foam Behavior: The Dominant Role of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺

Key Points

Implication

Abstract

Discussion

Cite This Study

Mechanistic Insights into Water Hardness Effects on AFFF Foam Behavior: The Dominant Role of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺

Key Points

Implication

Abstract

Discussion

Cite This Study

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