Abstract The growing scarcity of clean water has led to the increased reuse of treated and even untreated wastewater, particularly in agriculture. However, this practice poses significant environmental and public health risks due to the presence of emerging contaminants such as antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This study presents an optimized electrochemical treatment system for the removal of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) from hospital wastewater, using a biochar/graphite anode and a graphene oxide coated hydrogel nano-TiO₂ cathode. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on a "Box–Behnken" design was applied to optimize operational parameters including pH, initial CIP concentration, current density, and contact time. Under optimal conditions, 94.3% removal of CIP was achieved. The system also demonstrated high disinfection efficiency for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli , achieving near-complete microbial inactivation. These findings highlight the potential of electrochemical treatment systems as scalable, low-cost solutions for reducing pharmaceutical pollution and combating antimicrobial resistance in wastewater.
M. T. Hamad (2026) studied this question.