Background: Learning difficulties (LD) frequently co-occur with emotional and behavioral problems. Method: We analyzed the prevalence rates of LD (assessed with standardized achievement tests) and psychopathological problems reported by parents regarding the children's gender in a large German epidemiological sample of 1264 second graders (53% boys). Results: The prevalence of LD in one or more learning domains was 19%; psychopathological problems were reported for 8% of the sample. Regarding gender differences, there was a significant overrepresentation of girls with arithmetic difficulties and of boys in spelling and – marginally – combined reading and spelling difficulties. Compared to children without LD, girls with combined spelling difficulties showed significantly higher odds (than boys) for psychopathological problems (odds ratio for combined arithmetic: 1.7; combined reading: 2.8). The odds ratios for conduct problems were particularly higher for girls with isolated arithmetic difficulties (2.9) and combined spelling difficulties (up to 3.7). The probability of comorbid psychopathological problems was three times higher for children with LD than for their unaffected peers. Children with arithmetic disorders (isolated and combined) were the most affected by additional behavioral, emotional, or attentional problems (up to 32%). Discussion: The results highlight the gender-specific odds ratios for learning difficulties and co-occurring behavioral problems. They emphasize the need for psychopathological assessment of children with LD.
Poltz et al. (2025) studied this question.