An Overview of Avian Vaccination Options in Zoological Collections in Europe

Captive bird populations in zoological institutions face unique disease risks due to close interspecies contact and human interaction. Vaccination is widely used as a prophylactic measure. However, most available vaccines are developed for poultry and are used off-label in non-domesticated birds, often without species-specific safety and efficacy data. This review provides a comprehensive overview of vaccines reported in zoo-housed birds for major viral, bacterial, and fungal pathogens. This review highlights that for most vaccines, evidence of safety and effectiveness is limited. Vaccine use should therefore be guided by risk assessment, relevant legislation, and institutional priorities, and should integrate species-specific data on vaccine safety and effectiveness, disease susceptibility, and local epidemiology. Extensive research and species-specific validation are essential to improve preventive health strategies in avian conservation programs.