Purpose This study examines the validity of a core principle of adaptive leadership framework: that leadership is distinct from authority. It also extends the framework by offering new insights. Design/methodology/approach Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to reveal hidden heterogeneity in leadership behaviors among a sample of 1909 organizational employees with different authority levels. We also used multinomial regression to explore how authority level relates to adaptive leadership behavior classes. Findings Our findings are consistent with Heifetz's (1994) notion of leadership is distinct from authority. Results suggest that organizations may have employees across different authority levels who exhibit leadership to varying degrees. This study also indicates that some groups of employees without substantial authority may exercise adaptive leadership even more than those in high positions of authority. It also offers a counterintuitive finding that shows as formal authority increases, the likelihood of belonging to higher-ALB profiles decreases. Practical implications Organizations should not restrict their leadership development strategy to only those with senior or minimal authority. The article explains why training leadership competencies should be tailored to specific authority levels. It introduces organizational conditions needed to see more leadership behavior from those in authority positions. It also offers insights into how individuals with more or less authority in organizations can support one another while exercising leadership. Originality/value This study advances adaptive leadership framework by providing empirical support for one of its core principles, namely that leadership can be exercised from any position, independent of authority.
Shams et al. (2026) studied this question.