Female Offending Trajectories: A Systematic Review

Abstract Female offending behaviours are a complex public health issue associated with significant economic and social costs. The criminal careers of offending females have been studied to a lesser extent than those of offending males. This study thus sought to systematically review the literature on female offending trajectories. Twenty-six studies in 7 countries over 3 decades were identified (approximately N = 92,023 individuals with offending behaviours although some cohorts may have been reported in more than one publication; reported median of 16.5 years of follow-up). Early-onset desistant, adolescent-limited (AL), low and medium-rate chronic, life-course persistent (LCP), late-onset and sporadic groups were all identified. Although trajectory investigations in female-only samples typically identified fewer trajectories than in mixed-gender/sex samples, the trajectories identified were similar. Contrary to Moffitt’s original theory, there was evidence that LCP female trajectories did exist, representing between 0.4 and 23.4% of female offenders. The societal cost of persistent offending is significant, due to the intergenerational impact associated with women’s involvement in the criminal justice system. Identifying the main offending trajectories amongst female offenders allows us to tailor interventions for groups based on specific patterns and risk-periods. Limitations of the extant evidence base include limited follow up times, small sample sizes and limited global coverage.