Shade provision is the most effective strategy for mitigating heat in cities; yet its distribution remains highly uneven. Using high-resolution simulations of shade casting from buildings and trees on pedestrian areas, combined with socioeconomic data at the neighbourhood level, we assess shade availability across nine climatically and geographically diverse cities: Amsterdam, Barcelona, Belém, Boston, Hong Kong, Milan, Rio de Janeiro, Stockholm, and Sydney. Our results reveal a consistent pattern of spatial and socioeconomic inequality: lower-income and peripheral neighbourhoods tend to receive significantly less shade on sidewalks, despite facing greater heat vulnerability. Notably, inequality persists even in cities with high overall shade coverage, where wealthier areas benefit from disproportionate abundance. By focusing on public pedestrian spaces, rather than general coverage, this study highlights the importance of measuring heat burden through the lens of human experience. We call for equity-centred adaptation strategies that target shade provision where it is most needed, particularly in underserved and exposed communities.
Gu et al. (2026) studied this question.