In this study, we present an extension of the Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system (TS-FIS) framework based on prototypical fuzzy similarity (PFS) for defect detection in concrete. The key novelty lies in integrating the PFS mechanism into the TS-FIS+ANFIS architecture, thus enabling a hybrid rule–activation mechanism, bringing together fuzzy interpretability with data-driven similarity learning. To describe the ultrasonic concrete defect scenario, a high-fidelity finite element method (FEM) model that combines solid mechanics with fluid acoustics has been developed. From this numerical model, a synthetic dataset of about 36.8 million samples has been generated. The performance of the proposed TS-FIS+ANFIS+PFS classification system has been compared with that of a conventional FIS+ANFIS model, its particle-swarm-optimized (PSO) version and a Decision Tree (DT) classifier. The proposed model achieved the best performance, with a classification accuracy of 85.4% and an inference time of approximately 0.2 ms per sample. In contrast, the conventional, the PSO and the DT classifiers yielded accuracies of 60.5%, 62.0%, and 76.0%, respectively. These results confirm that PFS improves sensitivity and alleviates the computational effort, representing a potential candidate toward the realization of a defect abacus for concrete, an atlas conceived as a systematic collection of defect configurations associated with specific ultrasonic responses.
Cacciola et al. (2026) studied this question.