This article critically examines the historical evolution of public–private coexistence in the education sectors of Tanzania and Kenya, highlighting the persistent inequities in access, quality, and inclusivity. Earlier reforms that promoted private-sector expansion in education were grounded in the assumption that market mechanisms would naturally broaden access and enhance quality. However, decades of practices in the region demonstrate that the assumption has largely failed, as private schools—despite their contribution to the national education system—have deepened urban–rural and elite–non–elite disparities by predominantly serving socioeconomically advantaged populations. Using a reflective historical policy analysis, the study has identified that successive reforms prioritized expansion over inclusion. Specifically, there has been persistent policy reliance on market-led, supply-side reforms with weak inclusion safeguards. Therefore, the study proposes the Proximity and Inclusion-Based Partnership (PIBP) as a conceptual framework to align private-sector participation with equity and social justice. The framework operationalizes four interlinked mechanisms: resource-linked subsidies, micro-credential and skills-based programs, cross-subsidization, and community-anchored enrollment quotas. The findings underscore that conceptualizing private education as a tool for community empowerment, rather than a mechanism for elite advantage, is crucial to achieving high-quality, equitable lifelong learning that aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 4.
Fute et al. (2026) studied this question.