Animal models for critical-sized long-bone defects and long-bone non-union: a scoping review

Preclinical models for critical-sized defects and non-union remain highly heterogeneous, limiting reproducibility and translational relevance. Clear, species-appropriate definitions, improved reporting of defect and fixation parameters, and alignment of study duration with species-specific healing dynamics are essential to strengthen comparability. While model selection should remain driven by the research question, greater standardisation and the development of biologically faithful non-union models are needed to improve the clinical predictive value of preclinical research.