Abstract Physical modeling of biological matter has conventionally treated them as engineering or physical materials that subscribe to laws of equilibrium physics and are considered “passive” or ”nonliving”. However, biological systems are “active” or “alive” with their own energy source, capable of circumventing equilibrium considerations. In fact, active biological matter including self-propelled particles, filaments, and membranes, is the hallmark of living matter and drives life?s most dynamic processes. Unlike passive soft materials that exhibit only equilibrium thermal fluctuations at the microscopic scales, active systems consume energy to generate unique mechanical behavior. Examples of such behavior include persistent dynamics, stress generation, and large deformations that violate fluctuation?dissipation relations from equilibrium statistical mechanics, placing active matter far from equilibrium. This tutorial introduces a unified approach that combines continuum theory with non-equilibrium statistical mechanics to study soft active biological matter. The discussion is organized by dimensionality: we begin with zero-dimensional active Brownian particles, proceed to one-dimensional active filaments modeled as elastic rods, and conclude with two-dimensional active membranes described using linear curvature elasticity. For each class of active matter, we review equilibrium and non-equilibrium models, illustrate key concepts through simple examples, and provide a concise survey of the literature. Our aim is to emphasize physical interpretation and practical modeling tools, equipping readers with a coherent framework for understanding the existing body of work and pursuing research in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics of living systems.
Ramesh et al. (2026) studied this question.