Reassessing Baumrind’s framework: a systematic review of cultural adaptations and emerging parenting patterns in diverse societies

Parenting is not a fixed set of behaviors but a fluid, reciprocal, and contextually embedded process. This review calls for a paradigmatic shift from rigid typologies to dynamic, universalist models toward ecologically valid, culturally grounded approaches or models that recognize the diversity of family systems and developmental goals. Future research must prioritize the development of culturally adaptive instruments and theories, especially in underrepresented regions like Java, to advance a more inclusive, equitable, and globally relevant science of parenting.