Ambivalence as an Asset: Investigating Intra- and Interpersonal Benefits of Ambivalence

This dissertation explores the benefits of trait and state ambivalence in both intra- and interpersonal contexts, challenging the traditionally negative view of ambivalence. While ambivalence is often associated with indecisiveness and cognitive conflict, recent research suggests that it can enhance associative breadth, improve judgment accuracy, and reduce bias in social judgments. Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the theoretical background and empirical literature on ambivalence, highlighting both its traditionally negative consequences and its potential adaptive value, and outlines the overarching research questions that guide the studies. Spanning Chapter 2 and 3, Part I focusses on intrapersonal decision-making. Chapter 2 investigates the relationship between trait ambivalence and confirmation—the tendency to seek out information that supports existing beliefs. Across multiple studies, trait ambivalence was consistently associated with reduced confirmation, suggesting more balanced information processing. Chapter 3 extends these findings by examining how both trait and state ambivalence affect the acquisition of decision-related information, a key part of confirmation, using a process- tracing approach. While preregistered analyses did not support our hypotheses, exploratory results suggest that different kinds of ambivalence may influence information acquisition in distinct ways. Part II consists of Chapter 4 and shifts to interpersonal dynamics, focusing on how ambivalence is perceived in organizational leadership. Specifically, Chapter 4 examines whether ambivalent leaders are seen as more cognitively flexible and responsive—qualities that could foster upward communication from followers. Three studies consistently showed that leaders perceived as ambivalent were seen as more cognitively flexible and, in turn, more responsive, encouraging followers to voice ideas and concerns. Taken together, this dissertation provides evidence that ambivalence, particularly at the trait level, can have adaptive benefits in both intrapersonal and interpersonal processes, challenging the assumption that ambivalence is primarily a hindrance and instead suggesting it can often be an asset.