Carrier-free enzyme immobilization has become a central design concept for constructing high-density catalytic architectures in flow biocatalysis. This Perspective discusses the evolution of such materials from early cross-linked enzyme aggregates and crystals to biologically derived inclusion bodies, all-enzyme hydrogels (AEHs), and genetically encoded protein crystals. These carrier-free systems achieve high enzyme loadings, enhanced stability, and improved cofactor retention, thereby enabling continuous processing under mild conditions. Among them, AEHs currently provide the most versatile experimental platform, combining high catalytic density with tunable porosity and mechanical flexibility that favor mass transport and integration into microstructured reactors. Genetically encoded crystalline assemblies complement this development through molecular precision and robustness. The article further highlights emerging trends in automation and data-driven reactor control, including the use of inline analytics for autonomous optimization, as well as the growing importance of standardized data management following the FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) principles. Together, these advances outline a path toward precision biocatalysis, where material design, reactor engineering, and digital control converge to enable sustainable and reproducible enzyme-driven manufacturing.
Stalter et al. (2026) studied this question.