What question did this study set out to answer?

This research aims to evaluate the effect of different catalyst types on the economic and environmental aspects of levulinic acid production from cassava rhizome.

March 14, 2026Open Access

Effect of catalyst types on economic feasibility and environmental impact evaluation of simultaneous levulinic acid and hydrochar production from cassava rhizome via acid catalytic hydrothermal process

Key Points

This research aims to evaluate the effect of different catalyst types on the economic and environmental aspects of levulinic acid production from cassava rhizome.
Cassava rhizome was delignified with KOH solution at 120 °C for 1 hour.
Levulinic acid and hydrochar production used H2SO4 and HCl as catalysts.
Conversion occurred at temperatures of 175-225 °C for 1-3 hours.
Economic and environmental assessments were conducted for both H2SO4 and HCl catalysts.
The highest levulinic acid yield of 15.34% was obtained with H2SO4 at 225 °C for 2 hours.
HCl-catalyzed process showed superior economic feasibility with an IRR of 55.76%.
The environmental impact for HCl-catalyzed production was lower, at 96.75 kg CO2 eq./kg LV.
Catalyst selection significantly affected both productivity and sustainability metrics.

Abstract

The economic feasibility and environmental impacts of simultaneous levulinic acid (LV) and hydrochar synthesis from cassava rhizome (CR) using H 2 SO 4 and HCl catalysts were investigated. In this study, CR was initially delignified with a KOH solution at 120 °C for 1 h, followed by conversion into LV and hydrochar using 0. 1–0. 7 M H 2 SO 4 at 175–225 °C for 1–3 h. The highest LV yield (15. 34 wt. %) and selectivity (84. 60%) were achieved at 225 °C for 2 h using a 0. 4 M H 2 SO 4. Characterization of the resulting hydrochar revealed fuel properties comparable to coal, indicating its potential as a coal substitute. Notably, the HCl-catalyzed process demonstrated superior economic feasibility, with an internal rate of return (IRR) of 55. 76% and a minimum selling price of 21. 98/kg LV, attributed to its higher LV yield. Furthermore, LV produced via the HCl system exhibited a lower environmental impact (96. 75 kg CO 2 eq. /kg LV), highlighting the critical influence of catalyst selection on productivity, economic viability, and environmental sustainability. • Levulinic acid (LV) and hydrochar were produced from cassava rhizome (CR). • H 2 SO 4 catalytic hydrothermal process of CR achieved the highest LV yield of 15. 34%. • TEA and LCA of the LV production using either H 2 SO 4 or HCl were compared. • HCl-catalyzed process had superior economic and environmental feasibility. • Catalyst selection affected LV productivity, economic, and environmental impacts.

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