Neuroprotective role of Bougainvillea spectabilis in ketamine-induced neurotoxicity: targeting oxidative stress and neuroinflammation

Objectives Schizophrenia is a persistent and devastating mental illness that affects around 1 % of the population. Despite the availability of antipsychotic drugs, their limited efficacy and significant adverse effect profiles have sparked an increased interest in finding well-tolerated, safer alternatives. Recently the bioactive compounds that are produced from natural sources as possible supplementary therapy to reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia. This study seeks to evaluate the potential therapeutic effects of Bougainvillea spectabilis (B. spectabilis) in alleviating oxidative stress and neuroinflammatory pathways associated with ketamine-induced biochemical and histopathological changes. Methods Rats were administered ketamine (30 mg/kg, s.c.) to cause neurotoxicity. B. spectabilis extract at dosages of 50 and 100 mg/kg, were administrated 30 min later. Results B. spectabilis extract significantly decreased oxidative stress, including homocysteine and malondialdehyde (MDA), while increasing endogenous antioxidant defenses such as reduced glutathione (GSH) and folic acid levels. The extract also attenuated neuroinflammatory responses through downregulation of TNF-α and NF-κB expression and markedly improved the histopathological architecture of brain tissue. Conclusions The study demonstrates that B. spectabilis extract exerts neuroprotective effects through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. These findings suggest that the extract may represent a promising adjunct therapeutic strategy for mitigating neurotoxicity associated with oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.