Phytochemical Profiling and Mechanistic Evaluation of the Antioxidant and Anti‐Inflammatory Activities of Curcuma caesia Roxb. Rhizome Extract: An Integrated In Vitro, In Vivo, and In Silico Study

Curcuma caesia Roxb. (black turmeric) has long been used in Ayurveda and traditional medicine to treat various ailments. Considering the contribution of oxidative stress and inflammation to the development of various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, the current study investigated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of C. caesia Roxb. rhizome methanolic extract (CCM), along with phytochemical profiling. Antioxidant activity experiments showed IC50 values of 66.5 ± 8.81 µg/mL, 42.69 ± 5.78 µg/mL, and 132.35 ± 8.08 µg/mL, for DPPH, ABTS, and metal chelating assay, respectively. In the in vivo study, antioxidant and inflammatory mediator expression was evaluated, where the levels of TNF-α, IL-6, ALT, AST, and iNOS, were reduced, and IL-10 and SOD were increased significantly at high dose. Phytochemical characterization by UPLC-ESI-HRMS tentatively annotated curcumenol, curzerenone, furanogerenone, and germacrone as major compounds and zederone as a minor trace constituent. Molecular docking analysis was performed by targeting NF-κB, ERK, p38, JNK, and Nrf2 pathways, where docking scores ranged from -5.5 to -8.6 kcal/mol. Overall, these findings provide the mechanistic insights into the interconnection between the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of CCM, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent against oxidative stress and inflammation-associated diseases.