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This document derives the Tolman surface brightness law in S-D Theory, suggesting viability against tired light models.
Derives the Tolman surface brightness law S ∝ (1 + z_obs)^(−4) within S-D Theory, passing the test that historically eliminated all tired light models. Derives S_a = 1.20 from the 50% Stability principle and validates it across multiple independent energy and expansion rate measurements.
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Anil Madhavan (2026) studied this question.
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