Abstract Contrail cirrus clouds are a main contributor to the climate forcing from aviation 1 . Yet, the number of contrail ice crystals forming behind aircraft with modern lean-burn engines is unknown. Theory spans a four orders of magnitude range in ice crystal numbers 2,3 —rendering related climate effects unpredictable. Here we show that lean-burn combustion reduces soot particle number emissions by three orders of magnitude compared with conventional rich–quench–lean engines 4,5 —but does not significantly decrease volatile particles or contrail ice crystal numbers—both can exceed 10 15 particles per kg of burned fuel. Our findings arise from in-flight observations behind an A321neo aircraft with lean-burn engines, thus providing real-world confirmation of some laboratory work 6 and narrowing the range of theoretical expectations. Our results indicate that the tested lean-burn engine configurations alone are unlikely to reduce the warming effect of contrails, suggesting that modifications of fuel composition and lubrication oil venting architecture may be required. We show that contrail ice particle numbers in the low-soot regime can be reduced by using low-sulfur fuels and that organic fuel constituents and lubrication oil vapours can increase contrail ice particle numbers. Future research should explore how reductions in volatile particles, apart from soot, affect contrail ice formation.
Voigt et al. (2026) studied this question.