What is Working Memory? Can It be Improved? How Would This Go?

Working memory is widely recognized as a core component of cognition, yet the efficacy of its training interventions remains a subject of debate. In this article, we begin by reviewing prominent models of working memory and highlighting key theoretical tensions and ambiguities. We then introduce a new framework distinguishing between two modes of cognitive activity: online processing mode, which involves real-time, high-demand coordination of information under temporal and social pressure, and offline processing mode, which is self-paced and unfolds naturally without such pressure. We argue that working memory capacity is best understood as the ability to manage information in the online processing mode. Building on this perspective, we reviewed existing training paradigms and proposed real-time speech organization activities such as formal speaking, live explanation, and structured oral argumentation, as an ecologically valid alternative to previous training paradigms. Because these tasks require sustained real-time information processing in time-sensitive, dynamic, content-varying, and socially salient settings, they offer a promising and ecologically grounded approach to strengthening core cognitive functions. We conclude by offering a theoretical rationale for this approach and outlining implications for future research and intervention.