Spatiotemporal evolution and influencing factors of traditional overseas Chinese settlement heritage in Peninsular Malaysia (1600s–1950s)

Traditional Overseas Chinese Settlement Heritage (TOCSH) in Peninsular Malaysia constitutes a distinctive diasporic cultural landscape shaped by long-term migration, trade networks, and cross-cultural interaction. However, region-scale quantitative analyses of its spatial evolution and influencing factors of TOCSH remain limited. This study integrates archival documentation, field investigations, and GIS-based spatial modelling to examine the spatiotemporal evolution of 86 settlements from the 17th to the mid-20th century. The results identify three major developmental stages—port-based formation, coastal consolidation, and territorial expansion, revealing a marked spatial shift from dispersed coastal enclaves to corridor-based inland networks. These trajectories are interpreted through a four-dimensional framework of influencing factors encompassing environmental constraints, transport infrastructure, economic activities, and social institutions. By embedding spatial evidence within historical contexts, the study reframes TOCSH as a dynamic regional settlement system and provides an empirical basis for differentiated conservation and heritage-corridor management strategies.