Artificial muscles have been in development for decades and play a crucial role in the field of wearable robotics. However, a universal device for both sensing and regulating forces in artificial muscles is still absent, rendering scenario-required force control unfeasible. Inspired by Golgi tendon organs, this work proposes bionic ExoTendon for force sensing and regulating in artificial muscles as a general solution. Leveraging the principles of triboelectrification and electrostatic induction, the ExoTendon offers high linearity, minimal hysteresis, and adjustable sensitivity and range, making it suitable as the tendon of artificial muscles. Specifically, the ExoTendon effectively enable adjustment to the pretension of the artificial muscles, yielding various assistive forces under the same input. With the optimized pretension level and closed-loop force control, the artificial muscle–based exosuit achieves self–force regulation, substantially improving walking balance and speed in stroke subjects under low input, demonstrating its promise in wearable robotics and rehabilitation medicine.
Xie et al. (2026) studied this question.