Evolution of the Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase Protein Kinase Family in C3 and C4  Flaveria spp.

The key enzyme for C₄ photosynthesis, Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase (PEPC), evolved from nonphotosynthetic PEPC found in C₃ ancestors. In all plants, PEPC is phosphorylated by Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase Protein Kinase (PPCK). However, differences in the phosphorylation pattern exist among plants with these photosynthetic types, and it is still not clear if they are due to interspecies differences or depend on photosynthetic type. The genus Flaveria contains closely related C₃, C₃-C₄ intermediate, and C₄ species, which are evolutionarily young and thus well suited for comparative analysis. To characterize the evolutionary differences in PPCK between plants with C₃ and C₄ photosynthesis, transcriptome libraries from nine Flaveria spp. were used, and a two-member PPCK family (PPCKA and PPCKB) was identified. Sequence analysis identified a number of C₃- and C₄-specific residues with various occurrences in the intermediates. Quantitative analysis of transcriptome data revealed that PPCKA and PPCKB exhibit inverse diel expression patterns and that C₃ and C₄ Flaveria spp. differ in the expression levels of these genes. PPCKA has maximal expression levels during the day, whereas PPCKB has maximal expression during the night. Phosphorylation patterns of PEPC varied among C₃ and C₄ Flaveria spp. too, with PEPC from the C₄ species being predominantly phosphorylated throughout the day, while in the C₃ species the phosphorylation level was maintained during the entire 24 h. Since C₄ Flaveria spp. evolved from C₃ ancestors, this work links the evolutionary changes in sequence, PPCK expression, and phosphorylation pattern to an evolutionary phase shift of kinase activity from a C₃ to a C₄ mode.