Fooling ourselves and others: confirmation bias and the trustworthiness of qualitative research – Part 1 (the threats)

Purpose To describe the implicit epistemic flaw of “confirmation bias” and to illustrate and evaluate the threats to qualitative research trustworthiness from that bias. Design/methodology/approach The article overviews evidence and analysis from a wide range of disciplines. The adverse effect of three varieties of confirmation bias is described in some detail in illustrative examples. Findings It is argued that the threats from the bias go to the heart of the research. A subsequent article summarizes and critiques counter-arguments. Practical implications Discussions and illustrations of varieties of confirmation bias can increase awareness of the unwitting bias and reduce its influence. Social implications The bias not only threatens the trustworthiness of academic and other professional research but also underpins much ideological extremism, the effectiveness of post-truth politics and inter- and intra-group conflict. These are directly discussed in the article. Originality/value The article extends and enriches descriptions of threats to the trustworthiness of qualitative from confirmation bias. Such threats are inadequately recognized in many qualitative research arenas. It identifies a previously unrecognized variety of confirmation bias: hollow citations.