³¹P NMR Chemical Shifts of Phosphorus Probes as Reliable and Practical Acidity Scales for Solid and Liquid Catalysts

Acid-base catalytic reaction, either in heterogeneous or homogeneous systems, is one of the most important chemical reactions that has provoked a wide variety of industrial catalytic processes for production of chemicals and petrochemicals over the past few decades. In view of the fact that the catalytic performances (e.g., activity, selectivity, and reaction mechanism) of acid-catalyzed reactions over acidic catalysts are mostly dictated by detailed acidic features, viz. type (Brønsted vs Lewis acidity), amount (concentration), strength, and local environments (location) of acid sites, information on and manipulation of their structure-activity correlation are crucial for optimization of catalytic performances as well as innovative design of novel effective catalysts. This review aims to summarize recent developments on acidity characterization of solid and liquid catalysts by means of experimental ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy using phosphorus probe molecules such as trialkylphosphine (TMP) and trialkylphosphine oxides (R₃PO). In particular, correlations between the observed ³¹P chemical shifts (δ³¹P) of phosphorus (P)-containing probes and acidic strengths have been established in conjuction with density functional theory (DFT) calculations, rendering practical and reliable acidity scales for Brønsted and Lewis acidities at the atomic level. As illustrated for a variety of different solid and liquid acid systems, such as microporous zeolites, mesoporous molecular sieves, and metal oxides, the ³¹P NMR probe approaches were shown to provide important acid features of various catalysts, surpassing most conventional methods such as titration, pH measurement, Hammett acidity function, and some other commonly used physicochemical techniques, such as calorimetry, temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (NH₃-TPD), Fourier transformed infrared (FT-IR), and ¹H NMR spectroscopies.