Risk prediction in spine surgery: a scoping review of traditional models, artificial intelligence, and the challenge of clinical translation

Traditional risk models remain interpretable, trusted, and competitively performant for many spine surgery outcomes. While AI/ML approaches expand data integration and interaction modeling, their clinical impact is constrained by validation, trust, and implementation barriers. Future progress will depend less on incremental performance gains and more on rigorous external validation, prospective outcome studies, and integration into clinical workflows.