Microbial landscapes in dairy cow diseases: from localized dysbiosis to inter-organ axes

Dairy cow health involves host-microbiome interactions. This review characterized microbial landscapes across anatomical sites in dairy cows—including the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, reproductive tract, mammary gland, and skin—and examines their associations with diseases. We elucidated how site-specific dysbiosis drives systemic conditions such as mastitis and ketosis through inter-organ axes. Finally, we evaluated emerging microbiome-based modulation strategies and their application prospects in dairy farming.