Diagnostic Biomarkers in Cervical, Breast, and Prostate Cancers: A Review

Laboratory-based biomarkers are becoming more and more important in the diagnosis of cancer, supporting therapy selection, risk assessment, and early detection. Prostate, breast, and cervical cancers account for a significant amount of cancer-related morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in Africa, where access to sophisticated testing and delayed diagnosis continue to be significant obstacles. With a focus on their applicability to laboratory medicine practice, this narrative review investigates both established and developing diagnostic biomarkers for these three cancers. Emerging liquid biopsy techniques like circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), exosomal RNA, and circulating microRNAs are reviewed alongside validated tissue and molecular biomarkers, such as high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) testing and p16/Ki-67 dual immunostaining for cervical cancer; oestrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), HER2, and multigene assays for breast cancer; and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and urine-based molecular tests for prostate cancer. Important operational, analytical, and equity-related issues that impact implementation in environments with limited resources are highlighted. The research emphasizes how crucial diagnostic labs are to converting biomarker advancements into clinically and publicly significant cancer control plans throughout Africa.