Data-driven benchmarking of lithium–sulfur cells: Defining practical energy density limits through multivariate ternary analysis

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries offer high theoretical energy density (1,672 mAh g⁻ 1 ) and low material cost, yet their practical deployment remains limited by poor scalability under lean-electrolyte and high sulfur-loading conditions. Many reported electrolyte strategies achieve high capacities in coin cells but rely on excess electrolyte and low areal loading, obscuring constraints critical for pouch-cell operation. Here, we present a data-driven benchmarking framework to evaluate Li–S performance across coin and pouch configurations by jointly analyzing sulfur loading, electrolyte-to-sulfur (E/S) ratio, and delivered capacity. Using literature data from 2022 to 2025, we construct ternary performance landscapes and apply principal component analysis (PCA) to identify governing trade-offs. Two orthogonal axes emerge: a practicality-driven axis linking high sulfur loading, low E/S ratio, and high areal capacity, and a stability-driven axis associated with capacity retention and fade rate. Their weak coupling reveals a persistent gap between energy density optimization and durability. Importantly, this work establishes a statistically grounded, data-centric framework that transforms fragmented literature into actionable design space. A feasible operating window— ~ 7–10 mg cm⁻ 2 sulfur loading and ~ 1.7–2.8 µL mg⁻ 1 E/S—yields ~ 5.5–7.5 mAh cm⁻ 2 areal capacity with stable cycling, providing quantitative benchmarks for scalable Li–S systems.