This study develops a high-fidelity finite element (FE) model to predict the mechanical behavior of cross-country vehicle tires on complex terrains. Through reverse engineering and material testing, the hyperelastic parameters of the rubber compounds were characterized, and the cord-rubber composites were accurately modeled using rebar elements with orthotropic elasticity. The established 3D tire model incorporates Rayleigh damping to enhance dynamic simulation stability. Extensive validation under static and dynamic conditions demonstrates high accuracy. The correlation coefficients between predictions and experiments exceed 95% for static stiffness on flat ground and cleat loading tests. For dynamic cleat traversal, a hybrid simulation strategy was employed. The simulated vertical force responses show excellent agreement with experimental measurements across various operating conditions, with a global accuracy consistently above 95%. This validated model provides a reliable digital tool for tire performance prediction and design optimization.
Liu et al. (2026) studied this question.