Microplastics in the environment and biota in Vietnam: a review of occurrence, characteristics, sources, and risks.

This review provides a systematic synthesis of 90 studies on microplastic (MP) pollution in Vietnam published between 2016 and 2024. The primary objective is to establish a comprehensive baseline of MP occurrence, characteristics, and ecological risks. Employing a multi-database search strategy, we evaluated MP distribution across atmospheric, terrestrial, and aquatic compartments, as well as within diverse biota. The findings reveal widespread contamination, dominated by fibers and fragments that serve as a "material footprint" of Vietnam's key economic sectors-specifically textiles, fisheries, and packaging-alongside systemic waste management gaps. Secondary particles prevail, confirming that leakage from mismanaged land-based waste is the primary pollution pathway. Comparative analysis indicates that MP concentrations in urban and industrial hotspots often exceed global averages. Notably, polymer risk assessments highlight that rural agricultural soils in the North and coastal environments face elevated toxicological risks due to hazardous polymers like PVC and PU. Furthermore, the review identifies a significant research bias toward urban aquatic environments, revealing critical data gaps in rural soil and atmospheric systems. To address this crisis, an integrated strategy is proposed, combining the standardization of sampling protocols, rigorous implementation of extended producer responsibility (EPR), and enhanced wastewater treatment infrastructure to foster a circular economy and mitigate systemic environmental risks. This synthesis provides a vital framework for evidence-based mitigation and future research toward sustainable plastic management in Vietnam.