Cognitive and affective drivers of loyalty in VR religious tourism: a cognitive flow–presence loyalty model

Purpose This study aims to introduce the cognitive flow–presence loyalty model, extending the quality–loyalty model through cognitive appraisal theory. It explains how virtual reality (VR) quality appraisals evoke flow and presence, shaping satisfaction and loyalty in VR religious tourism. Design/methodology/approach Data from 450 VR religious tourism users were analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling and importance–performance map analysis. Findings The results validate cognitive flow–presence loyalty model as a robust framework for explaining user loyalty in immersive religious tourism. Practical implications VR service providers and destination managers can boost satisfaction and loyalty by improving system responsiveness, content authenticity and vividness to strengthen flow and presence, while policymakers can support adoption through investments in digital infrastructure and stakeholder collaboration. Originality/value This study advances theory by formalising the cognitive flow–presence loyalty model, integrating cognitive appraisal with flow and presence to explain loyalty in VR religious tourism.