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Study derives fermion mass spectrum and CP violation, suggesting new insights into particle physics.
We derive the complete Standard Model fermion mass spectrum, neutrino masses and mixing, the proton decay rate, and the CP violation invariant directly from the internal product graph with vertex numbers (18, 9, 3). The three fermion generations correspond to the three distinct Laplacian eigenvalues of the Paley-9 graph. The observed mass hierarchies arise from a combination of power-law and exponential suppressions controlled by the Cheeger constant, plus two-loop RG running, with all nine charged fermion masses, the three light neutrino masses, and the PMNS mixing angles in agreement with observation. The regularization parameter of the right-handed neutrino Majorana mass matrix is uniquely determined as (-3 plus sqrt(13)) divided by 2 by the information-protection principle and the topological phase from the Paley-9 Z3 automorphism. The proton lifetime is predicted to be far beyond any conceivable experimental reach. CP violation is derived from the genus of the product graph, yielding the Jarlskog invariant in agreement with the measured value. All results are obtained with zero free parameters.
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Xin Cao (2026) studied this question.
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