Abstract The discovery of gravitationally lensed stellar clusters at high redshift with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has revealed extremely compact, massive star-forming systems in galaxies at z 6, providing a new window into early cluster formation. In this work, we investigate star cluster formation in the circumgalactic environments of gas-rich galaxies with stellar masses spanning between ∼108–1011 M⊙ at z 7, using the MassiveBlackPS cosmological hydrodynamical simulation with 2 pc resolution. We identify 55 baryon-dominated clusters forming outside galactic discs but within the virial radius of the primary halo. Star formation in these systems proceeds rapidly, reaching peak stellar surface densities above 105 M⊙ pc−2, closely matching the compact clusters recently discovered by JWST in the lensed Cosmic Gems Arc at z ≈ 9.6. Such extreme densities are a key pre-requisite to trigger runaway stellar collisions, indicating that a subset of our clusters would be a likely host of intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs). We find that massive star clusters can form efficiently in the circumgalactic medium at early times through filament fragmentation, whereby high gas densities lead to rapid local collapse via a combination of thermal and gravitational instabilities. This formation pathway implies that some compact clusters formed in the quiet outskirts of forming galaxies rather than within their discs. Small variations in filament properties, including metallicity, density, and dark-matter content, influence the likelihood of a star cluster being able to form an IMBH seed. The formation of clusters in circumgalactic environments points to a potential evolutionary pathway connecting early off-disc clusters, present-day globular clusters, and the seeds of massive BHs.
Donkelaar et al. (2026) studied this question.